The social science literature abounds with unconnected and, so it seems, diverse propositions about the emergence of norms. This article sets out to show that many of these propositions only differ in regard to terminology. Proponents of different theoretical orientations seem to accept a key hypothesis that is called “instrumentality proposition”: norms emerge if they are instrumental for attaining the goals of a group of actors. Apart from a problematic functionalist version the article focuses on an individualistic version: if actors (...) want to achieve certain goals and if a norm is instrumental to attain these goals individuals perform those actions that bring about the norm. This proposition involves several assumptions that are discussed.This version of the instrumentality proposition explains norms that are planned (i.e., that are second-order public goods). In order to account for the evolutionary emergence of norms a second version of the instrumentality proposition is discussed. It assumes that actors do not want to create a general norm but aim at providing certain private goods in interaction situations. For example, smokers sanction non-smokers in order not to be exposed to smoke in the interaction situation, but non-smokers do not want to engender a general non-smoking-norm. However, the aggregated effect of those actions is often a general norm.The article further explores problems of the two instrumentality propositions, the extent to which they answer important questions of a theory of norm emergence and alternative propositions to explain norms. (shrink)

This article addresses major arguments in the controversy about the “rationality” of moral behavior: can moral behavior be explained by rational choice theory (RCT)? The two positions discussed are the incentives thesis (norms are incentives as any other costs and benefits) and the autonomy thesis claiming that moral behavior has nothing to do with utility. The article analyses arguments for the autonomy thesis by J. Elster, A. Etzioni, and J. G. March and J. P. Olsen. Finally, the general claim is (...) discussed whether norm following and norm emergence are utility maximizing. The conclusion is that the autonomy thesis is not tenable if one applies a wide subjectivist, social psychological version of RCT that includes the assumption of “bounded rationality.” The autonomy thesis is only compatible with a narrow version of RCT that excludes internal outcomes and that refers to norms that do not have external outcomes. It is argued that such a narrow version is not capable of explaining many forms of behavior social scientists are interested in. (shrink)

This paper describes a research program that focuses on the explanation of political protest and its causes. The starting point is Mancur Olson’s theory of collective action. This theory is modified, extended and applied to explain political protest. In particular, it is argued that only a wide version of Rational Choice theory that includes ‘soft’ incentives as well as misperception is capable of providing valid explanations of protest behavior. Another part of the research program is the utilization of survey research (...) to test the predictions about protest behavior that are generated from the wide version of Rational Choice theory. The research program further aims at (a) comparing empirically Rational Choice and alternative propositions, (b) providing micro-macro explanatory models, (c) dynamic theoretical models, and (d) explaining preferences and beliefs which are usually treated as exogenous variables. The paper further reports, some results of the research program. (shrink)

Hans Albert war zu Beginn meines Studiums im Jahre 1959 an der Universität zu Köln wissenschaftlicher Assistent am Lehrstuhl von Gerhard Weisser in der wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät. Die Namen der vielen Assistenten kannte man nur dann, wenn Sie Lehrveranstaltungen hielten oder wenn sie eigene Arbeiten betreuten. Trotzdem erfuhr ich von Hans Albert und seinen von der herrschenden Lehre abweichenden Ansichten schon zu Beginn meines Studiums. Wie sich bald zeigte, schienen die von ihm vertretenen Ansichten eine Reihe von Problemen zu lösen, die (...) wir – eine Gruppe von Studierenden – diskutierten. Um dies zu zeigen, sei kurz die Situation an der wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Köln beschrieben. (shrink)

In the previous issue of Analyse & Kritik (2020, vol. 42, issue 1) Alexander Vostroknutov (3-39) aims at a ‘synthesis’ of economics with ‘psychology, sociology, and evolutionary human biology.’ This paper argues that his approach needs to be complemented at least by work from sociologists and social psychologists. Starting with problems of defining and measuring norms it is then claimed that a theory of norms should address the origin, change and effects of norms and model micromacro processes. This should also (...) be the goal of a theory of institutions (which are defined here as sets of norms-norms in the sense of accepting oughtness statements). We show how the social psychological value expectancy theory can be applied to model the variety of incentives that could play a role in explaining the effects of norms. Regarding the origin Coleman’s theory of norms is applied to show how Vostroknutov’s dissatisfaction-norms hypothesis can be improved. (shrink)

The rational choice approach focuses on explaining macrosocial phenomena or relationships by applying a theory about the behavior of individual actors. This paper addresses James S. Coleman’s account of micro-macro transitions involved in rational choice explanations. The starting point of this account is a macro-relationship. Its independent variable has a causal effect on the independent variable of a micro-relationship. The dependent variable of this relationship in turn influences the dependent variable of the macro-relationship (see Figure 1 of this paper). The (...) paper extends this account by delineating other types of micro-macro explanations and discusses some of its problems. (shrink)

This paper discusses various problems of explanations by mechanisms. Two positions are distinguished: the narrow position claims that only explanations by mechanisms are acceptable. It is argued that this position leads to an infinite regress because the discovery of a mechanism must entail the search for other mechanisms etc. Another paradoxical consequence of this postulate is that every successful explanation by mechanisms is unsatisfactory because it generates new ``black box'' explanations. The second – liberal – position that is advanced in (...) this paper regards, besides explanations by mechanisms, also the discovery of bivariate correlations as a first step of an explanation by mechanisms as meaningful. It is further argued that there is no contradiction between causal analysis and the explanation by mechanisms. Instead, explanations by mechanisms always presuppose the analysis of causal structures (but not vice versa). The final point is that an explanation by mechanisms is not inconsistent with the Hempel-Oppenheim scheme of explanation. (shrink)

This contribution addresses the relation between (macro) hypotheses about social collectives (ranging from dyads to societies) on the one hand and (micro) hypotheses about individual actors on the other. This relation is the subject of methodological individualism (MI) and micro–macro modeling. Their ideas are first illustrated with an example: it is shown how the hypothesis that inequality is related to societal political violence can be explained by considering theories about individuals (i.e. micro theories) and relations between the macro and micro (...) factors (bridge assumptions). Next the components of micro–macro explanations are analyzed in detail. One question is whether macro and micro propositions and bridge assumptions are lawful statements, causal singular hypotheses or only correlations. It is shown that bridge assumptions can be empirical and analytical (i.e. logically true) statements. An example of the former is the impact of inequality on individual political deprivation, an example of the latter is the aggregation of individual crimes to the crime rate. After outlining the major arguments for micro–macro modeling and methodological individualism I illustrate their wide application in the social sciences. I conclude with a discussion of possible problems of micro–macro modeling and MI and a summary of the program of MI. (shrink)

The present paper focuses on the sociological model of man (also denoted as homo sociologicus or normative paradigm). It is discussed to what extent three problems limit its explanatory value: (1) behavior which is not normatively regulated and (2) behavior deviating from norms cannot be explained. (3) In case of norm conflicts it cannot be explained which of the normative expectations is followed. It is further discussed to what extent another model of man - which is called the “utilitarian”, “economic” (...) or rational choice model - is able to solve these problems. It is shown that the sociological model in fact consists of two different “utilitarian” models with very restrictive assumptions. Some of the problems of the sociological model are demonstrated by applying it to a well-known theory of role conflict. In the final section we discuss some consequences of the sociological model for the utilitarian approach. (shrink)

Provides a thorough background study of the postmodern assault on the standpoint of the subject as a foundation for philosophy, and assesses what remains today of the philosophy of subjectivity.

Kants Ethik zeigt das typische Profil einer klassischen Theorie: Sie präsentiert im Kontext jeder Zeit neue und überraschende Perspektiven. 200 Jahre nach dem Tod Kants ist die AuseinanderSetzung mit seiner Ethik keineswegs auf das philologische oder philosophiehistorische Interesse beschränkt. Vielmehr ist sie eine der wenigen Beispiele für den Sachverhalt, dass mit dem zeitlichen Abstand der Entstehung eines Werks die systematische Bedeutung immer noch zunehmen kann. Heute werden die großen ethischen Themen der Gegenwart, von den Menschenrechten bis zur Bioethik, nicht ohne (...) ausdrücklichen Bezug auf Kants Ethik behandelt. In diesem Band werden Beiträge vorgelegt, die durchgehend ein systematisches Interesse verfolgen. Sie rekonstruieren ausgehend von einem exegetisch gesicherten Ort im Werk Kants die Erträge für die gegenwärtige Philosophie. Mit Kant wird gleichsam über den ursprünglichen Horizont seines Denkens hinausgegangen. Dabei zeigt sich, dass die kantische Ethik nicht nur auf den ihr vertrauten Gebieten von Gerechtigkeit, Autonomie, Verbindlichkeit und Recht Bedeutendes leistet, sondern auch zum Problem der Motivation Lösungsvorschläge bereithält - einem Bereich, der lange Zeit als ihr Schwachpunkt angesehen worden ist. (shrink)

Krause’s philosophy deserves to be memorized as the first link in a chain of thinking on animal rights that is still on the way today. Though Krause was not the first to talk of animal rights in the history of animal ethics, his theory of animal rights is pathbreaking in embedding a conception of animal rights in an all-encompassing metaphysical system. The essay situates Krause’s theory of animal rights in the framework of his general theory of rights and points to (...) the challenges Krause’s theory faces by the inevitability of trade-offs between animal and human rights. (shrink)

The book (in German) on “Solar Energy – challenge for research, development and international co-operation” is the report of a study group of the Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. It reviews solar thermal, photovoltaic, and bio mimetic solar energy techniques; prospects of de-central techniques in developing countries; transport and storage of solar energy; and chances for cooperation with Arabic countries and countries of the South of the former Soviet Union. The prospect of large scale energy production in arid areas, and (...) the modern potentials of conducting electricity over long distances by high-voltage DC transmission (V, 2.1) are particularly relevant for the concluding section. Political chances as well as risks were considered for reliable long term cooperation with various Arab countries on these issues. The recommendations appear to be still appropriate 25 years after the book was published, particularly the political advice in favour of cooperation between Europe and suitable countries of the Maghreb. The global time scale of implementation (discussed in chapter I, 7.2) is of the same (high) magnitude as that of other major changes in the history of technology, such as the substitution of sailing ships by steamboats which took almost a century. (shrink)

The Socratic method has a long history in teaching philosophy and mathematics, marked by such names as Karl Weierstra, Leonard Nelson and Gustav Heckmann. Its basic idea is to encourage the participants of a learning group (of pupils, students, or practitioners) to work on a conceptual, ethical or psychological problem by their own collective intellectual effort, without a textual basis and without substantial help from the teacher whose part it is mainly to enforce the rigid procedural rules designed to (...) ensure a fruitful, diversified, open and consensus-oriented thought process. Several features of the Socratic procedure, especially in the canonical form given to it by Heckmann, are highly attractive for the teaching of medical ethics in small groups: the strategy of starting from relevant singular individual experiences, interpreting and cautiously generalizing them in a process of inter-subjective confrontation and confirmation, the duty of non-directivity on the part of the teacher in regard to the contents of the discussion, the necessity, on the part of the participants, to make explicit both their own thinking and the way they understand the thought of others, the strict separation of content level and meta level discussion and, not least, the wise use made of the emotional and motivational resources developing in the group process. Experience shows, however, that the canonical form of the Socratic group suffers from a number of drawbacks which may be overcome by loosening the rigidity of some of the rules. These concern mainly the injunction against substantial interventions on the part of the teacher and the insistence on consensus formation rooted in Leonard Nelson's Neo-Kantian Apriorism. (shrink)

Das Buch von Ulrich Lüke mit dem gewichtigen Titel „Mensch - Natur - Gott" enthält Aufsätze dieses Verfassers, insbesondere zu Fragen des Verhältnisses von Naturwissenschaft zu Schöpfungstheologie. Lüke beklagt hier eine große Sprachlosigkeit. Die Schöpfungstheologie habe die Evolutionstheorie noch gar nicht so recht wahrgenommen, es gehe erst einmal darum, das Terrain für einen künftigen Dialog zu bereiten. Dieser Dialog soll im Rahmen einer Einheitsrationalität stattfinden. Lüke vergleicht die verschiedenen Wissenschaften mit dem elektromagnetischen Spektrum, wo es zwar sehr verschiedene Phänomene, aber (...) keine wirklichen Brüche gibt. Von diesem Standpunkt aus erscheinen ihm Überlegungen, wie sie sich z.B. bei Karl Rahner oder Bela Weißmahr finden obsolet, denn diese grenzen ein metaphysisches Kausalitätsprinzip von empirischen Formen von Kausalität ab. Dies führe zu einer „Ursachenverdopplung". (shrink)

Review of Griechische Grundbegriffe By Karl Kernyi. Fragen und Antworten aus der heutigen Situation (Albae Vigiliae, N.F. Heft XIX; Zfirich: Rhein-Verlag, 1964.72 Seiten,DM/Fr 9, 80.) In the present little volume 1 which is rich in content, Karl Kernyi makes an attempt to interpret several essential "basic Greek concepts" with regard to the "basic Greek realities" (griechischen GrundtaLsachen) which come to expression in them in such a way that, when confronted with contemporary religious and theological inquiry, they disclose their (...) meaning in a way that is applicable to the contemporary situation (p. 10). (shrink)

Unbemerkt von der internationalen Philosophie gibt es seit fast dreißig Jahren eine deutsche Debatte über die Frage, ob die Hauptthese des Fallibilismus – keine Aussage ist sicher – widersprüchlich sei. Wir werden zeigen, daß diese Debatte auf beiden Seiten an begrifflichen Unklarheiten und fehlenden Unterscheidungen leidet. Die insbesondere von Karl-Otto Apel und Wolfgang Kuhlmann vorgetragenen Vorwürfe der Selbstimmunisierung und der Gehaltlosigkeit des Fallibilismus erweisen sich als unbegründet. Daraus folgt allerdings nicht, daß der von Hans Albert und Herbert Keuth verteidigte (...) Fallibilismus wirklich haltbar ist. (shrink)

Epikurs Lehre erfreut sich wachsender Aufmerksamkeit. Doch verdient auch die Geschichte des Epikureismus, insbesondere der Kaiserzeit, Interesse. Keineswegs verschwindet die diesseits orientierte Lehre Epikurs trotz wachsendem Streben der Philosophie nach Transzendenz in der Spatantike. Eine Analyse paganer wie auch christlicher Autoren zeigt, dass insbesondere Epikurs Ethik und ihr Angebot praktischer Lebenshilfe als Teil einer "praeparatio philosophica" uberlebt, ins Mittelalter vermittelt wurde und in der Renaissance Auferstehung feierte. Die Vortrage dieses Bandes begeben sich deshalb auf Spurensuche. Unter verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten gehen sie (...) der Tradition des Epikureismus in der spaten Republik und der Kaiserzeit nach und folgen ihnen bis zur Renaissance. Inhalt: Einleitung Graziano Arrighetti: Filodemo fra poesia, mito e storia Marcello Gigante: Seneca, ein Nachfolger Philodems? Dieter Timpe: Der Epikureismus in der romischen Gesellschaft der Kaiserzeit Martin F. Smith: Digging up Diogenes: New Epicurean texts from Oinoanda in Lycia Diskin Clay: Diogenes and his gods Matthias Baltes: Epikureische Theologie Mauro Tulli: L'epitome die Epicuro e la trasmissione del sapere nel Medioplatonismo Carlos Levy: Philon d'Alexandrie et l'epicurisme Tiziano Dorandi: Plotina, Adriano e gli Epicurei di Atene Franco Ferrari: La falsita delle asserzioni relative al futuro: un argomento epicureo contro la mantica in Plut. Pyth. orac. 10 Keimpe A. Algra: The Treatise of Cleomedes and its Critique of Epicurean Cosmology Christoph Markschies: Epikureismus bei Origenes und in der origenistischen Tradition Jose Kany-Turpin: Lactance, un critique mesestime de l'epicurisme Therese Fuhrer: Zwischen Skeptizismus und Platonismus: Augustins Auseinandersetzung mit der epikureischen Lehre in conf. 6 Dominic O'Meara: Epikur bei Simplikios Clemens Zintzen: Epikur in der Renaissance Michael Erler: Epikur in Raffaels "Schule von Athen"? Register. (shrink)

Die vorliegende philosophisch-fundamentalethische Studie nimmt diese Debatte auf im Blick auf die Fundamente ethischer Begründung und sittlichen Subjekt-Seins. Sie stellt die Frage nach der Bedingung der Möglichkeit - d.h. nach den epistemischen Voraussetzungen, den Potentialen und den Grenzen - der Selbstverständigung des menschlichen Erkenntnissubjekts, das sich auch als sittliches Subjekt versteht. Anhand der Denkansätze von Nicolaus Cusanus, Karl Rahner und Dieter Henrich kann sie eine offene Stelle im Selbstverstehen des Menschen freilegen. Diese Lücke im Selbstverstehen wird in der (...) vorliegenden Arbeit im Rahmen einer vernunftgeleiteten Selbstaufklärung philosophisch verortet, interpretiert und als notwendig für ein angemessenes Selbstverstehen bestätigt. Es ist dabei das Motiv der Docta ignorantia, das hier für die Selbstverständigung des Menschen fruchtbar gemacht wird. Die Studie arbeitet seine Rolle heraus und weist eine positive Bedeutung des Motivs für die Identitätsbildung eines jeweiligen Subjekts auf. Zudem werden Wege einer wissenschaftstheoretisch und lebenspraktisch befriedigenden Überbrückung der Lücken im sicheren Wissen aufgezeigt sowie vertiefte Einsichten für angemessenes Verständnis des Phänomens menschlicher Freiheit und Sittlichkeit eröffnet"-- Back cover. (shrink)

Epikurs Lehre erfreut sich wachsender Aufmerksamkeit. Doch verdient auch die Geschichte des Epikureismus, insbesondere der Kaiserzeit, Interesse. Keineswegs verschwindet die diesseits orientierte Lehre Epikurs trotz wachsendem Streben der Philosophie nach Transzendenz in der Spatantike. Eine Analyse paganer wie auch christlicher Autoren zeigt, dass insbesondere Epikurs Ethik und ihr Angebot praktischer Lebenshilfe als Teil einer "praeparatio philosophica" uberlebt, ins Mittelalter vermittelt wurde und in der Renaissance Auferstehung feierte. Die Vortrage dieses Bandes begeben sich deshalb auf Spurensuche. Unter verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten gehen sie (...) der Tradition des Epikureismus in der spaten Republik und der Kaiserzeit nach und folgen ihnen bis zur Renaissance. Inhalt: Einleitung Graziano Arrighetti: Filodemo fra poesia, mito e storia Marcello Gigante: Seneca, ein Nachfolger Philodems? Dieter Timpe: Der Epikureismus in der romischen Gesellschaft der Kaiserzeit Martin F. Smith: Digging up Diogenes: New Epicurean texts from Oinoanda in Lycia Diskin Clay: Diogenes and his gods Matthias Baltes: Epikureische Theologie Mauro Tulli: L'epitome die Epicuro e la trasmissione del sapere nel Medioplatonismo Carlos Levy: Philon d'Alexandrie et l'epicurisme Tiziano Dorandi: Plotina, Adriano e gli Epicurei di Atene Franco Ferrari: La falsita delle asserzioni relative al futuro: un argomento epicureo contro la mantica in Plut. Pyth. orac. 10 Keimpe A. Algra: The Treatise of Cleomedes and its Critique of Epicurean Cosmology Christoph Markschies: Epikureismus bei Origenes und in der origenistischen Tradition Jose Kany-Turpin: Lactance, un critique mesestime de l'epicurisme Therese Fuhrer: Zwischen Skeptizismus und Platonismus: Augustins Auseinandersetzung mit der epikureischen Lehre in conf. 6 Dominic O'Meara: Epikur bei Simplikios Clemens Zintzen: Epikur in der Renaissance Michael Erler: Epikur in Raffaels "Schule von Athen"? Register. (shrink)

There is a steadily growing literature on the role of the immune system in psychiatric disorders. So far, these advances have largely taken the form of correlations between specific aspects of inflammation (e.g. blood plasma levels of inflammatory markers, genetic mutations in immune pathways, viral or bacterial infection) with the development of neuropsychiatric conditions such as autism, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and depression. A fundamental question remains open: why are psychiatric disorders and immune responses intertwined? To address this would require a (...) step back from a historical mind–body dualism that has created such a dichotomy. We propose three contributions of active inference when addressing this question: translation, unification, and simulation. To illustrate these contributions, we consider the following questions. Is there an immunological analogue of sensory attenuation? Is there a common generative model that the brain and immune system jointly optimise? Can the immune response and psychiatric illness both be explained in terms of self-organising systems responding to threatening stimuli in their external environment, whether those stimuli happen to be pathogens, predators, or people? Does false inference at an immunological level alter the message passing at a psychological level (or vice versa) through a principled exchange between the two systems? (shrink)

Friedrich Schiller’s significance for philosophy was established in an irrefutable way by the Neo-Kantians. Following Kuno Fischer’s brilliant lectures in Jena in 1858 under the title of “Schiller as Philosopher” and Friedrich Albert Lange’s development of the “standpoint of the ideal” from Schiller’s philosophic poetry in the last part of his Geschichte des Materialismus (1866, 2nd edition 1873/75), many thinkers including Karl Vorländer (1894), Eugen Kühnemann (1895), Bruno Bauch (1905), Wilhelm Windelband (1905) and Ernst Cassirer (1916, 1924) underscored the (...) value of Schiller’s philosophy and also made clear that his philosophy cannot be approached independently of his poetry and his dramatic work. While Rüdiger Safranski’s biography (2004) finds the vital impulse for the emergence of German idealism from this melding of Schiller’s philosophy and poetry, the seminal studies of Dieter Henrich (Grundlegung aus dem Ich, 2004) and Manfred Frank (“Unendliche Annäherung”. Die Anfänge der philosophischen Frühromantik, 1997) on the origins of German idealism did not indicate that Schiller had contributed in an essential way to German idealism. This contrast in the evaluation of Schiller’s credentials in this regard can be drawn back to the fact that the relationship between idealism and realism in Schiller is not determined, as with Kant, in relation to the concept of knowledge, but from the viewpoint of beauty and the sublime, which combine reason and nature in such a way that idealizes reality. The centrepiece of Schiller’s philosophy is the poetic imagination. To this extent, Schiller anticipates in a basic way the later movement of philosophical Romanticism. (shrink)

My argument is that Chalmers’ Zombie fiction and his rigid-designator-argument going back on Kripke seems to come down to a petitio principii. Rather, at the core it appears to be more related to the essential ‘privacy’ of the phenomenal internal perspective. In return for Chalmers I argue that the ‘principle of self-preservation’ of living organisms necessarily implies subjectivity and the emergence of meaning. The comparison with a robot proves instructive. The mode of ‘mere physical’ being is transcended if, in the (...) form of phenomenal perception, meaning appears on the stage of higher animals – a transition explained here as an emergence phenomenon based on the systemic co-operation of perception, evaluation and action (‘percept-eval-act-system’). Some fundamental considerations are added: Those consequences implied by the principle of self-preservation reveal the natural-biological origin of the organism – primarily seeming a more insignificant circumstance – as a momentous fundamental difference (end-in-itself-character, subjectivity, constitution of meaning) compared to technical artefacts (robot). And the emergentist approach indicates the – maybe paradoxical – possibility of a dualism of physical and psychical phenomena in an overall physical system, that is not dualistic at the same time. (shrink)

Providing a gateway to a new history of modern aesthetics, this book challenges conventional views of how art's significance developed in society. -/- The 18th century is often said to have involved a radical transformation in the concept of art: from the understanding that it has a practical purpose to the modern belief that it is intrinsically valuable. By exploring the ground between these notions of art's function, Karl Axelsson reveals how scholars of culture made taste, morals and a (...) politically stable society integral to their claims about the experience of nature and art. -/- Focusing on writings by two of the most prolific men of letters in the 18th century, Joseph Addison (1672–1719) and the third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713), Axelsson contests the conviction that modern aesthetic autonomy reoriented the criticism and philosophy originally prompted by these two key figures in the history of aesthetics. -/- By re-examining the political relevance of Addison and Shaftesbury's theories of taste, Axelsson shows that first and foremost they sought to fortify a natural link between aesthetic experience and modern political society. (shrink)